2 Chapter 2: Understanding the Politics of Public Policy

Politics and Public Policy

Policy should not be confused with politics. However, public policy making exists within the context of politics. The term politics is used in a general sense, thus not limited to partisanship. Politics plays as significant role in the policy process as it is the use of power and negotiation to influence governmental decisions. As public policy is the process of collective decision making (Wheelan, 2011), it is a product of political processes; therefore, policy actors must consider the political implications of their actions. Partisan politics, in the shape of political party priorities, play a substantive role in policy making. Decision making is fragmented and there are many actors that share political power and engage in creating public policy (Anderson, 2015). In addition, politics contributes to the conflict within the policy process and to resulting policies. Understanding the politics of public policy is essential to those wanting to influence public policy in any way. Wu et al. (2018) suggest that those involved in the policy process, in order to be successful, should: a) identify actors involved in and impacted by policies; b) determine their interests, ideologies and relationships with other policy actors; and c) evaluate their power and leverage within the policy process.

Policy actors include individuals, groups, or institutions that have influence in public policy decisions. Actors can include elected and unelected executive and legislative branch officials, bureaucrats working in government departments and agencies, special and public interest groups, the media and citizens.

As noted in Chapter 1, many actors and institutions can influence the policy process and resulting outcomes. The policy process provides actors opportunities to discuss problems, develop solutions and advocate for the formal adoption of these solutions (Kraft & Furlong, 2007). Each group of actors participates in the policy process at various stages. Table 2.1 shows categories of actors and institutions and the stages of the policy process in which they engage.

Table 2: Policy Actors and Policy Process Engagement

Governmental and Non-Governmental Actors

Policy actors can be categorized as either governmental or non-governmental. Governmental actors include the executive, legislative members and employees in government departments and agencies. Anderson (2015) describes some governmental actors as official policy makers as they have the legal authority to create public policy. Non-governmental actors include interest groups, media and citizens.

Executives

Executives are heads of governments such as the president, state governors and mayors. They are responsible for developing and implementing policies that address societal or community issues. They typically have direct authority over executive-level departments or agencies. For example, the President of the United States is also the administrative head of the fifteen cabinet-level departments such as the Department of Defense, Department of Labor and Department of Education. Each of these executive departments is led by an appointed Secretary. The department Secretaries work at the pleasure of the President and are tasked with advancing the President’s policy agenda. Executives work closely with other governmental actors including bureaucrats and legislators in developing policy and are ultimately accountable for successful implementation of those policies. The same type of arrangement exists in state and local governments.

Actors working in governmental departments and agencies are referred to as bureaucrats. Bureaucrats translate policy ideas into an array of programs and activities. They are administrators charged with policy implementation and evaluation as they are experts with substantive knowledge about the policy areas in which they are responsible. Government Agencies and departments are sometimes constrained politically because legislative bodies authorize, and thus influence, how they carry out their work. Further, they may also reflect the values and priorities of the executive (Kraft & Furlong, 2007).

Legislative Bodies

Legislative bodies includes institutions such as Congress, state legislatures, city councils and county commissions. Legislative bodies play a critical role in public policy. Ideally, the policy ideas developed by legislative bodies reflect the interests, values and priorities of the constituents represented by elected officials. They develop policies, pass laws and determine regulations that shape policy. Members of legislative bodies work with other actors including executives, bureaucrats, interest groups, citizens and research organizations to develop policies that address societal issues. As legislatures appropriate and allocate funding for policies, they are also responsible for providing oversight of use of those resources as departments and agencies implement policies.

Interest Groups

Interest groups are organizations that seek to influence public policy in a particular policy domain or issue. They represent the collective interests of policy issue stakeholders including businesses, industries, and citizens. Interest groups form around a myriad of issues including, but not limited to economics, general public matters, environmental concerns, civil rights, and gun control and gun rights. Interest groups work with policymakers and other actors to garner support for policies that align with their causes and values. These groups influence policy by lobbying, creating grassroots campaigns, swaying public opinion and engaging the media on specific issues.

Media

The media, specifically the news media, can shape public policy by swaying public opinion and influencing policy actors. Media brings attention to issues, but often provides minimal coverage of most policy matters in favor of focusing on more high-profile issues (Anderson, 2015). However, the media may also shed light on issues that would otherwise go unnoticed. The news media plays a role in agenda setting as it can influence which issues may be considered important enough to pay attention to. The media frames issues in ways that can shape how policymakers perceive and respond to policy issues. These frames also contribute to how the general public thinks about and understands issues. The media is an important source of information for many and provides a platform for diverse perspectives. It can promote discourse and debate of policy issues which can then contribute to better informed and inclusive policy decisions.

Citizens

In discussions about the policy process, more attention is given to other policy actors than to citizens. Some argue citizens play a small, indirect role in the policy process (Wu, Ramesh, Howlett, & Fritzen, 2018). However, citizens can play a critical role in policymaking. They bring issues to the attention of governmental and non-governmental policy actors. Citizens can assist in agenda setting by clearly articulating policy problems and how those problems impact them. Citizens participate in the policy process through voting and by engaging elected officials through direct contact or in public hearings or other meetings. In these ways, citizens contribute to policy ideas and the formulation of solutions to societal problems. Citizens serve an important evaluation function as well. Since they turn to governments to solve problems and provide services (Harrison, Harris, & Deardorff, 2019), they can provide feedback on how policies are implemented, particularly those they benefit from or are harmed by. Citizens may also monitor the actions of elected officials and hold them accountable for their actions.

Power and Influence in Collective Policy Process Participation

We must recognize that actors have diverse interests and these interests conflict. The politics of the policy process refers to the ways in which these actors and institutions interact to shape public policy. Such interactions may include competition for resources, coordination, development of policy ideas and how these ideas can be implemented. Central to these interactions is each participant’s power and influence. Power and influence may be promoted based on participants’ values, perspectives on various issues, views on the role of government and political affiliation.

Influencing public policy requires an understanding of these dynamics that exist between policy actors, power, influence and values. Doing so better positions participants so that they can achieve desired policy goals. Wu et al (2018) note that many policy actors lack accumulated knowledge about and experience in the policy process. They note that many actors are weak in terms of policy acumen because they lack training in public policy and have limited access or exposure to key policy stakeholders. The authors advise policy or political acumen requires “an understanding of key players, their key interests, and their strategies and resources” (pg. 20). To gain this understanding, policy process participants must be able to establish relationships and build coalitions with governmental and non-governmental actors.

Concepts in Action

Mass shootings, particularly those which occur at schools, receive much attention and scrutiny.^[1] However, it can be argued that policymakers seldom take meaningful actions toward mitigating occurrences of mass shootings. A useful example examining the intersection of politics and policy is the Covenant School shooting which occurred in Nashville, Tennessee on March 27, 2023. In this shooting, a single assailant opened fire inside the school killing six people including three students and three staff members. The shooter carried two assault-style weapons and a handgun. Law enforcement found at least two other guns after searching the shooter’s home (Mattise, Loller, & Meyer, 2023). From this example, we can gain insights on Tennessee policy actors’ perspectives on solving the problem of school shootings based on their initial and subsequent reactions.

On March 28, 2023, Republican governor Bill Lee released a video statement condemning the shooting but offered little in terms of policy guidance.^[2] He suggested, however, that we must find ways to protect against such acts although we may not agree on the actions needed to be taken. Three days after the incident, the Governor floated the idea of expanding a proposal to put armed guards in all of Tennessee’s public schools and provide grant funding for private schools to do so (Brown, Tennessee Gov. Bill Lee Moves to Boost School Safety Funding, Open to Gun Reform After Shooting, 2023). Governor Lee’s position is consistent with the one presented in an executive order he signed in June 2002 calling for enhanced school safety measures in Tennessee following the May 2022 Uvalde, Texas school shooting. On April 11, 2023, the Governor called upon the Tennessee General Assembly to pass red flag laws – gun control measures in the form of a strong order of protection aimed at protecting citizens from people considered to be dangerous to themselves and to others. His view is that individuals who pose a threat to themselves or others should not have access to weapons. The Governor also proposed additional mental health support in schools.

It is also important to gain insights on the policy positions of other elected officials in Tennessee. During the 2023 legislative session but prior to the Covenant School shooting, the Tennessee General Assembly, the state’s legislative body, considered legislation which would expand access to firearms. One such bill, supported by Republican members, would decrease the permit-less carry age from 21 to 18. Republican members also promoted expanding permit-less carry to all firearms as opposed to only handguns (Brown, Emotions, Tempers Flare at Tennessee Capitol Hours After Nashville School Shooting, 2023). Democratic members opposed permit-less carry expansion. On the day of the shooting, Democrat members called upon the General Assembly to take legislative action on gun reform. Such reform would be unlikely since Republicans held a super-majority and their position on the gun issue is to promote fewer restrictions (Brown, 2023). The law enforcement community generally opposed this position.

Calls for gun control were echoed by citizens. Large groups of students protested at the state capitol demanding elected officials take action on gun reform (Wegner, Brown, Davis, Leyva, & Puente, 2023). Parents and leaders from Metro Nashville Public Schools also participated in the protests. Several celebrities used social media to express displeasure with elected officials for choosing not to act on gun reform and to criticize the National Rifle Association (NRA) (Garcia, 2023). The NRA, a prominent pro-gun lobbying organization, suggested that increased school security is a deterrent to school shootings (Phillips, 2023). The NRA also issued a statement opposing Governor Lee’s proposal for red flag laws in Tennessee on the premise that gun confiscation violates the Second Amendment (NRA Institute for Legislative Action, 2023).

News media played a role in shaping policy deliberations. MediaMatters for America (2023) analyzed news media reports about the Covenant School shooting. They concluded NBC, CBS and ABC affiliate news stations generally followed best practices regarding gun violence reporting. Best practices include taking approaches such as addressing the popularity of gun control and gun safety legislation, sharing facts about mass shooting and gun violence, and providing updates on protests favoring stricter gun laws. In contrast, Sinclair Broadcast Group’s Nashville affiliate promoted legislation fortify schools including arming teachers and hiring more school resource officers. Given the political nature of proposed solutions, the media can influence and legitimize the policy positions held by other policy actors.

Concluding Thoughts

Public policy is shaped by formal and informal political actors and institutions. These include governmental actors and institutions such as executives, departments and agencies and legislative bodies. Non-governmental actors include interest groups, the media and citizens. Each set of actors plays roles in different stages of the policy process. The political nature of public policy makes it a challenging enterprise. The policy process is complex, constantly changing and can put actors at odds in terms of values and priorities. Understanding the political dynamics of public policy is important for the development of policies that reflect the preferences and needs of diverse policy stakeholders.

Politics also plays a role in shaping policy problems. Policy problems, particularly the causes of problems, are not always agreed upon. Chapter 3 addresses the idea of problem definition. Clearly defining policy problems is paramount in developing effective policy solutions.

Discussion Questions

1. Explain why it is important to understand the politics of the policy process.
2. How effective do you think policy actors who lack a thorough understanding of the policy process will be in influencing policy outcomes?
3. Do you think partisan politics should play a prominent role in determining policy solutions? Explain.
4. Identify the executive-level departments/agencies of the federal, your state and your local governments. What issues do these departments/agencies address?
5. What interest groups are influential in a policy issue you are interested in?
6. To what extent do you think the media shapes the views of elected officials? Citizens?

Skill Development

Understanding the politics of public policy is critical to the success of any policy endeavor. Accordingly, policy is political, which requires building of support and neutralizing opponents (Bardach & Patashnik, 2016). Understanding the positions and motivations of key policy actors is an essential component of influencing public policy. This requires attention to policy issues, an understanding of the causes and consequences of related problems, careful analysis, networking, and effective communications.

You will conduct a political statement analysis utilizing a rudimentary form of sentiment analysis. Sentiment Analysis is the use of information technology to evaluate opinions expressed across multiple texts (Pritchard et al, 2015). It is also the process of extracting emotions, attitudes and views from text data. Generally, sentiment analysis allows analysts to classify textual statements as either positive, negative or neutral (Semwal et al, 2021).

Development of this skill enables analysts, public managers, advocates, etc. to: a) identify the policy positions of key policy actors and b) prepare policy position statements that consider the values, motivations and positions of those policy actors. This will enable you to have positive policy-related interactions and strengthen your positions on issues. To work on this skill, you will complete a Poltical Statement Analysis as outlined below.

Political Statement Analysis

STEPS IN A POLITICAL STATEMENT ANALYSIS

1. Identify a policy issue you are interested in. The issue may be related to, but not limited to, either of the following policy areas: health care, education, civil rights, gun control, environment, economy, social welfare, or national security. The issue could be at either the federal, state or local level.
2. Identify at least three key policy actors at the level of government in which the issue resides. For example, if your issue is urban livestock in Chattanooga, then your actors must be City of Chattanooga officials. Key policy actors include those that may have the greatest political influence on the issue. These actors include legislative committee chairs, members, executive leadership, etc. Actors may also include citizens and interest group representatives. Some ways to identify these actors include, but are not limited to:
   1. Examination of legislative committee websites such as Congressional Committees. For insight on how legislative committees generally work, see https://www.congress.gov/legislative-process/committee-consideration.
   2. Identification of political actors speaking on issues utilizing news media. Those who are out front on issues are typically those who possess some degree of influence.
3. Determine if the political actors’ views toward the issue you selected are generally positive, negative or neutral. You may use press releases news reports (tv, print, etc.), social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and blogs (Prichard et al, 2015). Other ways to assess political actor sentiments include using websites such as www.ontheissues.org/default.htm and www.justfacts.votesmart.org/public-statement/.
4. Given each actors’ position, explain how you would express your position to them. Your explanation should:
   1. Describe a problem related to the policy issue you selected.
   2. Develop a set of potential policy solutions to the problem. These solutions should take the actors’ positions into consideration

Resources

State Governors
https://www.usa.gov/state-governor

National Governors Association
https://www.nga.org/governors/

State Legislature Websites
https://www.congress.gov/state-legislature-websites

United States Executive Branch
https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/the-executive-branch/

United States Legislative Branch
https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/the-legislative-branch/

U.S. Interest Groups by Policy Issue
https://justfacts.votesmart.org/interest-groups

Works Cited

Anderson, J. E. (2015). Public Policymaking: An Introduction (Eighth Edition ed.). Stamford, Connecticut: Cengage Learning.

Bardach, E., & Patashnik, E. M. (2016). A Practical Guide for Policy Analysis: The Eightfold Path To More Effective Problem Solving (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: CQ Press.

Brown, M. (2023, March 28). Emotions, Tempers Flare at Tennessee Capitol Hours After Nashville School Shooting. Retrieved from The Tennessean: https://www.tennessean.com/story/news/politics/2023/03/27/nashville-covenant-school-shooting-tennessee-lawmakers-pause-floor-debates/70053087007/

Brown, M. (2023, March 31). Tennessee Gov. Bill Lee Moves to Boost School Safety Funding, Open to Gun Reform After Shooting. Retrieved from The Tennessean: https://www.tennessean.com/story/news/politics/2023/03/31/tennessee-gov-bill-lee-gun-reform-after-nashville-school-shooting/70066846007/

Garcia, T. (2023, March 27). Country Singers Call Out Politicians After Nashville School Shooting: ‘F— the NRA’. Retrieved from Variety: https://variety.com/2023/music/news/nashville-school-shooting-nra-hollywood-reacts-1235565526/

Harrison, B., Harris, J., & Deardorff, M. (2019). American Democracy Now (Sixth Edition ed.). New York, New York: McGraw-Hill Education.

Kraft, M. E., & Furlong, S. R. (2007). Public Policy: Politics, Analysis, and Alternatives (2nd Edition ed.). Washington, D.C.: CQ Press.

Mattise, J., Loller, T., & Meyer, H. (2023, March 28). Nashville Shooter Who Killed 6 Drew Maps, Surveilled School. Retrieved from AP News: https://apnews.com/article/nashville-school-shooting-covenant-school-5da45b469ccb6c9533bbddf20c1bfe16

Mount, B., & Van Bloem, B. (2023, April 11). A Sinclair-Owned Nashville Station Pushed Right-Wing Narratives in Response to the Covenant School Shooting. Retrieved from MediaMatters for America: https://www.mediamatters.org/sinclair-broadcast-group/sinclair-owned-nashville-station-pushed-right-wing-narratives-response

NRA Institute for Legislative Action. (2023, April 18). Tennessee – Urgent Action Needed – Oppose “Red Flag” Gun Confiscation Orders. Retrieved from NRA-ILA: https://www.nraila.org/articles/20230418/tennessee-urgent-action-needed-oppose-red-flag-gun-confiscation-orders

Phillips, A. (2023, March 28). NRA Says Nashville Shooting Proves More Guns Needed in Schools. Retrieved from Newsweek: https://www.newsweek.com/nra-nashville-shooting-more-guns-school-security-1790759

Prichard, J., Watters, P., Krone, T., Spiranovic, C., & Cockburn, H. (2015). Social Media Sentiment Analysis: A New Empirical Tool for Assessing Public Opinion on Crime? Current Issues in Criminal Justice, 27(2), 217-236.

Semwal, T., Milton, K., Jepson, R., & Kelly, M. P. (2021). Tweeting About Twenty: An Analysis of Interest, Public Sentiments and Opinion About 20mph Speed Restrictions in Two UK Cities. BMC Public Health, 21(2016), 1-13.

Wegner, R., Brown, M., Davis, M., Leyva, D., & Puente, K. (2023, April 3). Students Walk Out of Schools Across Nashville, Demand Gun Reform in Covenant’s Wake. Retrieved from Playing the
The Tennessean: https://www.tennessean.com/story/news/local/2023/04/03/covenant-school-protests-week-after-the-deadly-nashville-school-shooting/70076073007/

Wheelan, C. (2011). Introduction to Public Policy (First Edition ed.). New York: W.W. Norton & Company.

Wu, X., Ramesh, M., Howlett, M., & Fritzen, S. (2018). The Public Policy Primer (Second Edition ed.). New York: Routledge.